Chapter 3 Equality

This chapter focuses on the concept of equality, which is a central value often enshrined in constitutions and considered a fundamental moral and political ideal. It explores key questions surrounding equality:

• What does equality mean, and why is this ideal important?
• Does pursuing equality require treating everyone identically in all circumstances?
• How can we work towards achieving greater equality and reducing inequality in different aspects of life?
• How can we distinguish between different dimensions of equality, such as political, economic, and social equality?

In exploring these questions, the chapter touches upon important political ideologies that have grappled with the concept of equality, including socialism, Marxism, liberalism, and feminism. While facts and figures about inequality are presented to illustrate the concept, the primary focus is on understanding the nature and implications of equality as a political ideal.

Why Does Equality Matter?

Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal that has historically inspired and guided human societies. It is deeply embedded in many religious faiths, which often emphasize the notion that all human beings are equally creations of God. As a political ideal, equality asserts that all individuals possess equal inherent worth and deserve equal consideration and respect solely because they share a common humanity, regardless of their differences in color, gender, race, nationality, or any other characteristic. This shared humanity is the basis for concepts like universal human rights and the notion of 'crimes against humanity'.

In the modern era, the principle of the equal worth of all human beings has served as a unifying slogan in numerous struggles against states and social systems that perpetuate inequalities based on rank, wealth, status, or privilege. The French Revolution in the 18th century, for example, rallied under the banner of 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity' to challenge the power of the feudal aristocracy and the monarchy. Throughout the 20th century, the demand for equality was a central theme in anti-colonial movements in Asia and Africa. Today, struggles for equality continue to be pursued by marginalized groups within societies, such as women and Dalits, who experience discrimination and exclusion. Equality is now a widely accepted ideal, enshrined in the constitutions and laws of many nations worldwide.

Despite its widespread acceptance as an ideal, inequality remains a stark reality visible around us, both globally and within societies. Examples in India include the juxtaposition of affluent luxury housing and impoverished slums, or schools with world-class facilities alongside those lacking basic amenities like clean water and toilets. The global fact sheet highlights staggering disparities in wealth, income, and access to resources between richer and poorer nations and populations. Within India, census data reveals significant disparities in access to basic amenities and assets like electricity, tap water, bathrooms, televisions, and vehicles between rural and urban households, illustrating economic inequalities within the country. Inequalities in educational attainment are also evident across different caste and community groups.

This presents a paradox: While the ideal of equality is widely embraced, inequality is prevalent. This raises fundamental questions: Are these inequalities permanent, inevitable features of social life reflecting natural differences in talent or contribution? Or are they consequences of social position, rules, and power structures? These are central questions addressed in social and political theory.

For students of political theory, understanding equality requires addressing a range of questions: What does equality truly mean beyond just absence of obvious distinctions? Given our inherent differences, how can we say we are equal? What is the goal of pursuing equality – eliminating all differences in income/status? What kind of equality are we pursuing, and for whom? Should we treat everyone identically to promote equality? How do societies decide which differences in treatment or reward are acceptable? What policies should be implemented to create a more egalitarian society?

What Is Equality?

Observing images depicting discrimination based on race or color quickly reveals practices that are widely considered unacceptable and violate a fundamental understanding of equality. Our intuitive sense of equality tells us that all human beings deserve the same respect and consideration based on their shared humanity, making such discriminatory distinctions unacceptable (Figure 3.5 shows images of segregation based on race).

Historical photographs illustrating racial segregation in the United States, depicting separate facilities for 'white' and 'colored' individuals, highlighting unacceptable forms of inequality.

However, while equal respect is fundamental, treating everyone identically in every situation is not always required by the concept of equality, and may even be impractical or undesirable. The smooth functioning of society involves a division of labor and roles, which may lead to people having different statuses or rewards. Giving specific official ranks or status to roles like prime ministers or army generals might be considered acceptable or necessary for governance, provided these privileges are not abused.

The question is identifying which distinctions and differences in treatment are acceptable and which are not. Treating people differently based solely on their birth characteristics like religion, race, caste, or gender is widely regarded as an unacceptable form of inequality. However, people pursue different goals and possess varying talents and skills, leading to differences in success. The ideal of equality does not mean eliminating all such differences in outcome. It means that the treatment individuals receive and the opportunities they have access to should not be predetermined or limited by their birth or social circumstances. Everyone should have a fair chance to develop their potential and pursue their ambitions.

The concept of equality thus fundamentally implies that all people, simply by being human, should be entitled to the same basic rights and opportunities to develop their talents and pursue their goals. This ensures that differences in success are due to individual choices, effort, and talents, not due to unequal access to basic goods like education, healthcare, or safe housing, which are essential for participation and advancement in society.

Equality Of Opportunities

The concept of equality of opportunities is central to achieving a just society. It means that all individuals should have a fair and equal chance to develop their skills and talents and to pursue their goals and ambitions. In a society with equal opportunities, individuals may still end up with different levels of status, wealth, or success due to differences in talent, effort, or choices. However, these differences in outcome are considered acceptable as long as everyone had an equal starting point and equal access to the means for development and advancement.

Inequalities become problematic when they are rooted in unequal access to basic necessities and opportunities that are crucial for development and participation. Lack of access to good education, adequate healthcare, or safe housing creates an unequal and unjust society because it prevents people from even having a fair chance to compete or develop their potential, regardless of their abilities.

Natural And Social Inequalities

Political theory sometimes distinguishes between two types of inequalities:

• Natural Inequalities: Differences that are seen as arising from the distinct capabilities and talents with which individuals are born. These are often considered inherent and unalterable.
• Socially-Produced Inequalities: Differences that are created by society through unequal opportunities, exploitation of some groups, or discriminatory social norms based on factors like race, color, gender, or caste.

The distinction suggests that while natural differences in ability might lead to some variations in outcomes, socially-produced inequalities are the result of societal structures and values, and are often considered unjust and alterable. For example, a society valuing intellectual work over manual labor and rewarding it differently creates a social inequality. Treating people differently based on race or gender is a socially-produced inequality reflecting societal biases.

However, this distinction is not always clear-cut. Historical examples show that differences presented as 'natural' were often social constructs used to justify discrimination and unequal treatment. For instance, women were considered the 'weaker sex' and denied equal rights based on supposed natural timidity or lower intelligence, justifications now widely rejected as rooted in power imbalances rather than inherent biological differences. Similarly, beliefs about the intelligence or capabilities of people of different races were used to justify slavery and discrimination, now recognized as socially constructed prejudices.

Another challenge is that some differences once considered unalterable 'natural' inequalities are now modifiable with advancements in science and technology (e.g., medical science helping disabled people overcome physical limitations). It would be unjust to deny assistance or fair opportunities based on perceived natural limitations that can be addressed.

Given these complexities, many contemporary theorists prefer to distinguish between inequalities based on individual choices and those arising from the circumstances of birth (family, social status, etc.). It is the latter type of inequality that advocates of equality aim to minimize and eliminate, as it prevents people from having a fair start in life regardless of their potential or effort.

Three Dimensions Of Equality

To move towards a more just and egalitarian society, it is necessary to address inequalities across different aspects of life. Various thinkers and ideologies have identified three main dimensions of equality that must be pursued:

1. Political Equality
2. Social Equality
3. Economic Equality

Political Equality

In democratic societies, political equality typically involves granting equal citizenship to all members of the state. Equal citizenship bestows fundamental legal rights necessary for development and participation in governance. These rights commonly include the right to vote, freedom of expression, freedom of movement, freedom of association, and freedom of belief. These are legal guarantees intended to ensure that all citizens have an equal standing in the political sphere and equal access to the political process.

However, merely granting equal political rights by law may not be sufficient to create a truly equal society. Significant inequalities can persist, often stemming from disparities in social and economic resources and opportunities. For instance, while everyone may have the right to vote, differences in wealth or social status can influence political participation and outcomes. Therefore, the pursuit of political equality often extends to demanding equal opportunities or a 'level playing field', recognizing that legal equality alone may be limited if underlying social and economic conditions are vastly unequal.

Social Equality

While political and legal equality is an important foundational step, it needs to be complemented by social equality, which often involves ensuring equality of opportunity. Social equality means that people belonging to different social groups and communities should have a fair and equal chance to access opportunities, goods, and services available in society, regardless of their social background. To achieve this, it is necessary to minimize the impact of social and economic inequalities and guarantee certain minimum living conditions for all members of society. These minimum conditions include adequate healthcare, access to good education, sufficient nourishment, and a minimum wage. Without these basic necessities, it is extremely difficult for everyone to compete on equal terms, leading to a waste of potential talent and persistent inequality.

In India, challenges to equal opportunities arise not only from a lack of basic facilities but also from social customs prevalent in different communities. For example, customary practices may deny women equal rights of inheritance, prohibit their participation in certain activities, or discourage higher education for girls. The state has a crucial role in addressing such issues by enacting policies to prevent discrimination and harassment and providing incentives for education and employment opportunities for women and other disadvantaged groups. However, social groups and individuals also play a vital role in raising awareness and supporting those who seek to exercise their rights, working towards genuine social equality where individuals are not disadvantaged by their social background or customary practices.

Economic Equality

Economic inequality in a society refers to significant disparities in wealth, property, or income among individuals or classes. The degree of economic inequality can be measured by comparing the wealth/income differences between the richest and poorest segments of society or by estimating the number of people living below a defined poverty line. Absolute equality of wealth or income is likely an unachievable ideal and has rarely existed in practice.

While complete economic equality may not be sought, significant disparities pose challenges to equality. Most democracies today aim to provide equal opportunities in the belief that this gives talented and determined individuals a chance to improve their economic condition. With truly equal opportunities, differences in wealth might still arise based on effort and talent, but the starting point would be fairer. However, severe and entrenched economic inequalities, where certain classes hold vast wealth and power across generations while others remain poor, are detrimental to society. Such persistent class divisions can lead to social tension, resentment, and violence and make it difficult to create a more open and egalitarian society due to the power of the wealthy classes.

Political ideologies differ on how to address economic inequality. Marxism and socialism often argue that entrenched inequality is rooted in the private ownership of essential economic resources (land, industry) and property, which grants excessive political power to the owning class. They believe that addressing inequality requires public control over essential resources, going beyond just equal opportunities. Liberal theories, while acknowledging the need for a minimum standard of living and equal opportunities, often uphold competition as an efficient way to distribute resources and rewards fairly. They believe that in open and free competition, individuals are rewarded based on talent and effort, preventing inequalities from becoming unfairly entrenched. Liberals often do not see political, economic, and social inequalities as necessarily inherently linked, arguing that each dimension might require different approaches.

In India, economic inequalities are exacerbated by the caste system, creating barriers to educational and economic opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups. Data on educational attainment across communities (e.g., graduates per thousand persons) reveals significant disparities, suggesting that factors beyond mere chance are at play, including the impact of social hierarchies and historical disadvantages. Addressing these complex inequalities requires multifaceted policies across political, social, and economic dimensions.

How Can We Promote Equality?

Promoting equality involves implementing various principles and policies aimed at reducing inequality and creating a more egalitarian society. While there are debates between ideologies like socialism and liberalism on the best approach, certain steps are widely considered necessary.

Establishing Formal Equality

The foundational step in promoting equality is dismantling formal systems of inequality and privilege. Historically, many societies had customs and legal frameworks that explicitly denied opportunities and rewards based on social status, caste, gender, or wealth (e.g., denying voting rights to the poor or women, restricting professions based on caste, reserving high positions for certain families). Achieving equality requires legally abolishing all such restrictions and privileges. Governments and laws must cease protecting these systems of inequality. Modern constitutions and democratic governments typically accept the principle of equality before the law, treating all citizens identically regardless of their background. For instance, the Indian Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth and abolishes untouchability.

Equality Through Differential Treatment

While formal equality is necessary, it is often not sufficient to achieve true equality in practice. Sometimes, treating people differently is necessary to ensure that they can genuinely exercise and enjoy equal rights and opportunities. This is often referred to as equality through differential treatment or positive discrimination. Different circumstances or disadvantages faced by individuals or groups may need to be considered.

For instance, disabled people may need special facilities like ramps in public buildings or specialized equipment in schools to have an equal opportunity to access public spaces or education. Women working night shifts may require special transport or security measures to ensure their equal right to work is protected from harassment or danger. Such provisions are not seen as violating equality but as enhancing it by removing specific barriers that prevent certain groups from accessing opportunities on equal terms with others.

Determining which differences warrant differential treatment and what policies are needed to overcome hindrances to equal opportunities are ongoing debates in societies. Policies like affirmative action are used to address these issues.

Affirmative Action

Affirmative action is a set of policies and practices based on the idea that establishing formal equality by law is insufficient to overcome deeply rooted inequalities. To address entrenched forms of social inequalities and correct the cumulative effects of past discrimination and disadvantage, more positive, proactive measures are needed. Affirmative action policies aim to minimize and eliminate these systemic inequalities.

Affirmative action can take various forms: preferential spending on facilities (e.g., scholarships, hostels) for disadvantaged communities, or providing special consideration for admissions to educational institutions and jobs. In India, policies like reservations (quotas for reserved seats) in education and employment have been adopted within the framework of affirmative action to promote equality of opportunity for deprived groups, sparking considerable debate.

Arguments in favor of affirmative action policies like reservations:

• Certain groups have historically suffered significant social prejudice, discrimination, exclusion, and segregation (e.g., Dalits, certain tribal communities).
• Due to this history of oppression and denial of opportunities, these communities cannot immediately compete on truly equal terms with others in society.
• Special protection, assistance, and consideration are necessary to help these disadvantaged groups overcome existing barriers and disadvantages.
• Affirmative action is a means to promote an egalitarian and just society by ensuring fair representation and access to opportunities for those who have been historically marginalized.
• It is often intended as a temporary or time-bound measure, meant to enable disadvantaged groups to reach a point where they can compete equally.

Arguments against affirmative action policies like reservations:

• Critics question whether treating people differently based on group identity (caste, race) can ever lead to greater equality.
• They argue that reservations are unfair and violate the principle of equal treatment by arbitrarily denying opportunities to individuals from non-reserved categories.
• Reservations are seen as a form of reverse discrimination, continuing the very practices (making distinctions based on group) that the principle of equality aims to abolish.
• These theorists argue that equality requires treating all persons alike, and making distinctions based on caste or color reinforces social prejudices and divisions. They believe the focus should be on eliminating the social distinctions that divide society, rather than using them as a basis for policy.

The debate often revolves around whether 'equal treatment' means 'identical treatment' or 'treatment as equal'. Advocates of affirmative action argue that to treat everyone as equal might require differential treatment to compensate for historical and ongoing disadvantages. They point out that competition might not be fair when individuals from deprived backgrounds (e.g., first-generation learners from illiterate families) lack the resources, opportunities, and support available to those from privileged backgrounds (e.g., access to coaching, ability to pay high fees). Members of historically excluded or disadvantaged groups need special help to have a fair chance to compete.

Inequalities in education and healthcare in India, particularly affecting poor children from rural areas or urban slums who attend poorly equipped schools and lack means for special coaching or high fees for professional courses, highlight the significant hurdles to equal opportunities. Most theorists agree that such social and economic inequalities must be addressed, but they debate the best policies to achieve this. Should the state use reservations, or focus on providing better basic facilities and developmental opportunities from an early age? Should criteria for affirmative action be economic disadvantage or social categories like caste? These are ongoing policy debates.

Ultimately, the effectiveness and justification of policies must be evaluated based on their success in creating a more egalitarian and fair society for everyone. While deviating from identical treatment can be controversial (especially given the history of differential treatment in systems like the caste system or apartheid), it may be necessary in some cases to promote the goal of equality. However, such differential treatment requires strong justification and careful implementation to ensure it truly serves the purpose of promoting equality and does not create new forms of dominance or oppression. It is intended solely as a means to achieve a just and egalitarian society.

The women's movement has raised many issues related to equality and differential treatment. In the 19th century, women fought for equal rights in voting, education, and work – demanding the same rights as men. However, as they entered the workforce, they recognized the need for special facilities (like maternity leave, crèches) to effectively exercise these rights and compete fairly. These special considerations are seen not as privileges but as necessary measures to enable women to have equal opportunities and balance professional and personal lives. This illustrates that achieving equal rights may sometimes require different treatment to address specific circumstances faced by a group.

When considering whether different treatment is justified, the key question is whether it is essential to ensure that a group can enjoy the same fundamental rights and opportunities as the rest of society. Caution is necessary to prevent differential treatment from creating new structures of dominance or becoming a tool for privileged groups to gain special advantages. Differential treatment is justified only if it serves as a means to promote a just and egalitarian society.

Exercises

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